Embalming fluid is found throughout archaeological contexts and in historical accounts, even Jesus Christ himself was ‘embalmed’ according to the Bible. His body was washed and perfumed with organic compounds, possibly myrrh and aloe, and placed in his tomb before his resurrection. Despite this process of intended preservation, it is more likely the body was perfumed for pomp as there is no mention of body cavity preservation or organ removal. Although we do not have any archaeological evidence in the case of Christ, the mentioning of his embalming is significant as it is not mentioned for all biblical figures. The preservation of his body coincides with his resurrection, a possible link to the rise of embalming in numerous historical societies that embraced religious culture. What adds more to the significance of the embalming ingredients of Christ is the fact myrrh, a resin, was brought by Balthazar to the stable in the Nativity story. To understand the complexity of intended body preservation ingredients in archaeology, I have selected four bodies to discuss the development of embalming fluid recipes.
- ‘Balm’ Origins – The Turin S.293 Mummy, Egypt, c. 3700BC.
Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis indicated evidence of a ‘balm’ recipe which impregnated the textile wrappings found around the body of the Turin Mummy. The recipe was found to consist of a base of plant oil (the bulk of the balm), with conifer resin, an aromatic balsam and plant sugar. There was also evidence that suggested the mixture of resin had been slightly heated in the process. Despite the early date of the mummy, embalming fluid mixtures were already being established, with similar antibacterial agents (i.e. Resin) seen with Egyptian embalmers at the peak of the dynasty thousands of years later. Interestingly, this find suggested embalming was used over a thousand years earlier than we first thought. Like later mummies, the Turin mummy was dried out in salts with the organs removed before the balm was smothered over the remains. The removal of the organs and the antibacterial nature of the natural resin/ extracts halted microbial growth and thus allow for excellent preservation. The oils and resins applied to the body ‘sealed’ it from moisture in the air, however some fungi have been inhaled upon disturbance of mummified remains (i.e. pathogens and king Tutankhamun’s curse have been linked).
- Apothecaries’ Powders – King Henry VIII, England, 1547.
After the death of the famous Tudor monarch, the body was embalmed using the Tudor era recipe. The apothecary, Thomas Alsop, supplied the materials needed for his embalming process. This included cloves, various balms, oils, tox, myrrh, nigella and musk which likely cost the equivalent of more than £6,000 today. It is clear the Egyptian recipe still had influence thousands of years later, with the use of oils, scented balsams and powders used for dehydration of the corpse and protection against moist air. As with the use of bandages in mummification, Tudor corpses were wrapped in waxed cloth to further protect the soft tissue. Organs were removed often, and the body cavity was often flushed with the embalming fluid, much like the use of a trocar today. The use of a fatty oils along with resins and pleasant-smelling herbs/ spices made up most embalming fluid in different eras up to this point. The ancient recipe proved to be a worthy formula for future embalmers, with only some modifications made to account for the geographical location of natural derived ingredients and some modern updates. Sir Henry Halford recorded the exhumation of Charles I in 1813 and remarked upon the remarkable fresh appearance of his body (he died in 1648) and that was wrapped in cloth with a resin material within a lead coffin. Although the coffin of Henry the VIII stood in the same vault, the identity of his corpse was not in dispute like that of Charles’s, so it remained unopened by Halford. Halford does however remark upon the condition of the coffin which had been damaged and exposed his intact beard, but his torso showed skeletal remains, likely skeletonised from the disturbance of the lead coffin.
Descriptions of the 16th Century embalming method are mentioned by writers such as Forestus (1522-1597) and Paré (1510-1590). Both mention similar ingredients to Alsop’s materials for an aromatic powder to be inserted into body incisions (much like modern injecting) and a washing solution comprising of aqua vita and vinegar. It was around the 16th Century that anatomists such as Da Vinci (and even earlier in the case of Alessandro Giliani) started experimenting with injecting the fluid into the body. Often the fluid consisted of a wax like substance that would dry and reveal inner systems to those who studied anatomy.
- Arsenic and Arteries – President Abraham Lincoln, Washington D.C., 1865.
With the rise of the body count during the American Civil War came the rise of the embalming method amongst grieving families. Lincoln had his son Willie embalmed when he died in childhood from fever (the same embalmer embalmed Lincoln himself), even having him exhumed twice to see him again. Lincoln was an avid supporter of the practice and was embalmed so he could lie in state over numerous locations over a few weeks (strangely, his embalmed son was exhumed and moved with him on the ‘funeral train’ journey to be buried alongside his father). It is reported in historical documentation that Lincolns embalming process ‘held up’ on the first few stops of his final journey, with his features becoming more ‘shrunken and dark’ when they reached New York. It was the Presidents famous embalming that led the way for the practice to become the norm in modern American society. The method of arterial embalming replaced the ancient method. It was developed by the chemist Jean Gannal in the 1830’s, who initially worked an apothecary’s assistant where he no doubt became well versed in understanding various embalming fluid ingredients. The fluid used in this era was highly toxic. Arsenic and mercury were used (Cuvier is reported to have used pure alcohol), and many embalmers are thought to have died from poisoning. The toxicity of embalming fluid becomes more apparent around this time before the introduction of the ‘safer’ formaldehyde-based mixture which becomes commonplace in the 20th century.
- Formalin as fixative – Rosalia Lombardo, Palermo, 1920.
Alexander Butlerov (1828-1866) and Wilhelm von Hofmann (1919-1892) were the ones to discover formaldehyde (gas). Even though embalming fell out of favour for a few years following the Civil War, it is around 1896 when formaldehyde is introduced as a method of embalming. Colour preserving formulas were introduced in the 1920’s. Body preservation became concerned with restoring the natural colouring of the skin to allow for a more life like appearance. One unusual example in archaeology is the case of Rosalia Lombardo. Rosalia died in Italy in 1920 from pneumonia at the age of 2. Her father sought the help of a local embalmer/ taxidermist called Alfredo Salafia to carry out her preservation. What is interesting to note is that Salafia was a successor of Trachina (1797-1837), a famous anatomist who used arsenic for arterial embalming. For this reason, it was thought for a long time that Rosalia had been embalmed using arsenic. She is now on display in the Capuchin Catacombs in remarkable condition. The recipe for the fluid used has since been found, it consisted of formalin (to stall decomposition- formaldehyde and water), glycerin (stops desiccation), zinc salts (stopped her features collapsing), alcohol and salicylic acid (stops the growth of mould). CT scans of her body shows all her organs perfectly intact and she has quickly become an iconic archaeological specimen that also emotes empathy for childhood mortality. Today, in simplistic terms, the ingredients used to make up embalming fluid usually consist of formalin (preservative), phenol (antibacterial), methylated spirits (fixative), glycerin (pliability and hydration) and water (decrease acidity), showing some remarkable similarities to ingredients used 100 years ago. Embalming fluid is also used to restore the pigmentation of the skin, with the fluid often tinged pink and used with tissue builders. I have assisted and watched the process and it is remarkable to see the pink colour appearing on the skin and the ‘plumping up’ of the features, particularly in the case of a heavily emaciated person.
Whatever ingredients went into the development of embalming fluid in the archaeological record, they all served a purpose- whether that purpose was ceremonial, antibacterial or as a means of preservation. Ingredients in the fluid and exact quantities are more important now than ever, and with the introduction of new methods such as Thiel embalming and plastination, it is clear the development of what we use to preserve our deceased is still on going.
Sources consulted
Batra, A.P.S., Khurana, B.S., Mahajan, A. and Kaur, N., 2010. Embalming and other methods of dead body preservation. International journal of medical toxicology & legal medicine, 12(3), pp.15-19.
Brenner E. Human body preservation – old and new techniques. J Anat. 2014;224(3):316–344. doi:10.1111/joa.12160
Dixit, D., Athavia, P.D. and Pathak, H.M., 2005. Toxic effects of embalming fluid on medical students and professionals. JIAFM, 27(4), pp.209-11.
Gannal, J. (Jean-Nicolas)., Harlan, R. (1840). History of embalming: and of preparations in anatomy, pathology, and natural history; including an account of a new process for embalming. Philadelphia: J. Dobson.
Halford H, Essays and Orations, 1831, London John Murray.
Jones, J., Higham, T.F., Chivall, D., Bianucci, R., Kay, G.L., Pallen, M.J., Oldfield, R., Ugliano, F. and Buckley, S.A., 2018. A prehistoric Egyptian mummy: Evidence for an ‘embalming recipe’and the evolution of early formative funerary treatments. Journal of Archaeological Science, 100, pp.191-200.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/02/sicily-crypts/
Death’s Doll: The World’s Most Beautiful Mummy
https://pastnow.wordpress.com/2013/04/01/april-1-1813-charles-i-found/
Pathological Bodies Project 