I recently stumbled across the name Alessandra Giliani whilst listening to a podcast. I had never heard the name before and was fixated on the idea of a female anatomist in a field dominated by men, particularly during the early 14th century when Giliani was practicing. After some researching, it is clear this woman has a special place in anatomy history, with doubts as to whether she actually existed. Her life has been fictionalised by novelist Barbara Quick in the novel ‘A Golden Web’, but who exactly was she?
Alessandra Giliani was born in Persiceto, Italy in 1307. She studied under Mondino de Luzzi (who died the same year as her in 1326) at the University of Bologna. There, she worked as his assistant, specialising in dissection demonstrations and as a prosector. Whilst researching at the University, she also invented a method of observing small blood vessels in the body without damaging any human tissue. The technique involved injecting dyes into the body and allowing the solution to dry. Mondini de Luzzi had published a pivotal text on anatomy in 1316 and was a world-renowned researcher. Her young age as his assistant, let alone her gender, was an impressive achievement of the time. It has also been suggested that she was engaged to Otto Angenious. Another anatomist who worked as Mondino’s assistant, Angenius honoured Giliani after she passed away with a plaque of a description of her work.
Sources are very limited today about the life of Giliani. There have been suggestions that she was a fictional character created by Alessandro Machiavelli in the 18th century. It has also been suggested that her importance as an anatomist has been downplayed in history due to the unconventional role taken on by a woman in both the religious and social settings of the time. As a result of this, all evidence of her work is thought to have been destroyed or ‘lost’. Archaeologically, the only evidence that points to her existence is an image of a young, possibly female, anatomist depicted in the work of Mondino de Luzzi (see featured image). However the text was published first in 1316, long before Giliani worked for him, but was republished again years after her death with the image. One source, however, does mention the young anatomist. Michele Medici mentions her in his 19th century text that explores the history of the anatomy school at the University of Bologna.
Giliani died in 1326 at the age of 19. It is not clear how she died, but it is thought it was from a septic wound. Despite the tragedy of her early death, and despite the lack of resources on her work, she remains an inspirational and enigmatic character in the world of anatomy. It pains me to think of her work as lost in time, but hopefully historians will one day be able to tell the full story of Alessandra Giliani.
The grisly art of embalming has a very long history attached to it. This intended method of body preservation has varied immensely in numerous cultures over different time periods, however the aim of all these methods has been the same– to stall decomposition. Whether stalling decomposition was for the upkeep of public health and sanitation standards, for allowing the body to be presented to the family members or the public, or simply as part of a religious custom, it is what is left behind in archaeological deposits that allows us to begin to understand this practice. Modern embalming practices using formaldehyde solutions are common throughout the Western World, with some authors such as Mitford and Doughty questioning the need for this added expense on families by funeral homes. To understand the origins of this science and why it is still prevalent today, I have chosen four objects from the archaeological record to best demonstrate the complexity of embalming in past societies.
1.Origins: c.1300BC, Egypt- The Embalming Cache from Tutankhamun’s tomb.
One of the most famous archaeological finds in recent times also contained evidence of the earliest embalming practices. Although Egypt may not have been the very first civilisation to preserve their dead, they are by far one of the most famous. Amongst the finds with Tutankhamun’s mummy were the remains of an embalming cache. Included in the pit were jars with bags of natron, mud seals, bandages, kerchiefs and inscribed linen. Natron naturally occurred in the Nile Delta and was used in the embalming process in Egyptian society. Much like a modern embalming practice, the body was washed, and the organs were removed (this is also the case for modern embalmers who must treat an individual who has had an autopsy). Natron and other naturally occurring salts were used for desiccation of the body over several weeks. It is likely the body cavity was also stuffed with these salts as well. The body was then treated using oils, perfumes and herbs (most likely antibacterial like the ethanol used in modern embalming). Wrapping of the body with bandages then began, a timely process which warped body shape and finished the process before entombment. Within the Pharaoh’s tomb were also three headscarves thought to have been worn by the embalmers, one of which was died blue. As with the lab coats/ scrubs of many modern embalmers, these headpieces were likely used as a sign of respect or for sanitation. Even in the ancient world, the job of embalmer was respected as these used, well-worn kerchiefs (some sewed and darned) were buried with their king. As part of the embalming cache were long reeds that may have been used in probing the body. The sharpened, burnt ends suggest to archaeologists that heat was used as part of a sterilizing effect. However, the kit of a modern embalmer contains a trocar, a long device used to drain bodily fluid and organs after blood replacement. This aspiration process allows the removal of gases built up from the putrefaction process, something these ancient embalmers might have also observed upon making abdominal incisions.
Embalmer’s kerchief
Bag of Natron from the Embalming Cache
2. Spread of the practice: c.300AD, Roman Greece – 55-year-old embalmed woman.
If we fast forward 1600 years to Roman Greece, we find that the practice of embalming did not die out. Archaeologists discovered the tomb of a high-status female, aged 55 years. This find was particularly significant for embalming archaeology, as up until this discovery there was no real material evidence of embalming during this time period in Greece. Embalming was considered a culturally different practice, but nonetheless, some high-status individuals were embalmed. Perhaps the practice was too costly for the less wealthy of the population. One such example of the practice in Imperial Rome was Poppaea, the wife of Emperor Nero. This embalming was noteworthy, as cremation had been the primary burial write of the Romans, with numerous ancient literary sources stating the practice to be ‘barbaric’. It was likely she was embalmed to facilitate her public display, the same as modern dignitaries put on display in recent years- including Eva Peron and President Ho Chi Minh. The embalmed lady found by archaeologists had soft tissue intact, a rarity for Greek mummification studies, likely facilitated by the preservation practice and the lead coffin that encased the body. The use of a lead coffin is questioned during this time period, but perhaps the use may have served the same manor modern mausoleums do in keeping any bodily fluids from leaking. Multi-disciplinary analysis (Electron microscopy, EDX, mass spec etc.) revealed numerous compounds used in the preservation practice, including Styrax oil, cloves and possibly perfumed substances such as patchouli and lemon oil.
Greek mummy with intact hair
3. Organ removal: c.16th Century AD, Rennes (France) – heart shaped lead urns.
Much like the canopic jars for containing organs from Egyptian mummification practices, these five unusual urns each contained an embalmed heart. As seen with the Greek mummy, these vessels were made from lead (in the shape of a heart nonetheless) and allowed for excellent preservation of the soft tissue. The hearts were discovered at the site of the 14th Century ‘Convent of the Jacobins’, and much like previously discovered archaeological embalmed remains, these hearts likely belonged to noblemen. Heart burial was common across medieval Europe amongst noblemen, with many crusaders having their heart buried in the holy land. The strong symbolism of the heart lead to many being buried with the heart of their significant other, or the organ to have been buried somewhere else significant. In the case of Irish Catholic Emancipator Daniel O Connell, who died in Genoa, he requested ‘his body go to Ireland, his heart to Rome and his soul to Heaven’. Having seen his magnificent grave site in Glasnevin, Dublin, it is clear he was well respected, but it was still unusual that this Catholic Emancipator would have insisted on organ removal and embalming as late as the 19th Century in Ireland. During the Tudor reign in England, embalming was prevalent among royalty as well as separate organ burial (not just the heart but other viscera also as seen with the digestive tract of Henry VIII). Much like their ancient counterparts, Tudor embalmers used an array of spices and herbs to pack and treat the body- including cloves like that seen in the case of the Greek mummy, as well as myrrh and musk. The expense of the practice was not lessened by this time either, with none of the poorer population subject to the practice.
Embalmed hearts with heart shaped urns
4. Refinement: c.1840’s, Philadelphia (United States)- Civil War embalming table.
In modern embalming practice, the blood of the deceased is pushed out through the arterial system and replaced with formaldehyde, often tinted pink to allow a ‘flushed’ look. For this to occur the embalming table allows for drainage as seen with this very early example dating from the American Civil War. It was with the rise of the body count across the country during the Civil War that allowed for the eventual rise of embalming practices among the masses (that’s a whole other blog post!), with travelling embalmers popping up to offer their services to grieving war stricken families. The embalmers seen in this era began to use the highly toxic substances we think of when we think of embalming fluid today – with early examples including distilled alcohol and arsenic. Portable embalming tents sprung up all over battle grounds, hence why this table is flimsy looking to allow for transportation. We even see an example of a ‘marble embalming table’ which allowed for drainage during the Egyptian mummification process, allowing for a hygienic/ sterile environment for the embalmer to work in.
Civil War field embalming table
The examination of these four
objects give a brief insight into the complicated archaeological record related
to embalming practices. There are many more examples of such artefacts from
across the world- but much too many to fit into one blogpost! Hopefully they
will be the subject of many more posts to come.
Papageorgopoulou, C., Xirotiris, N.I.,
Iten, P.X., Baumgartner, M.R., Schmid, M. and Rühli, F., 2009. Indications of
embalming in Roman Greece by physical, chemical and histological
analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(1),
pp.35-42.
Counts, D.B., 1996. Regum externorum
consuetudine: The nature and function of embalming in Rome. Classical
Antiquity, 15(2), pp.189-202.
Mitford, J. (1998). The American way of death revisited (Rev. ed.).
New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Doughty, Caitlin. (2016) Smoke
Gets in Your Eyes: And Other Lessons from the Crematory. First
edition. New York: W. W.
Doughty, C. (2017). From here to
eternity: traveling the world to find the good death. First edition.
New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
The average cadaver depicted in modern media isn’t always average in appearance. They are often young, female and beautiful – shown in sharp contrast to the raw ugliness associated with the death and murder we see on our television screens, or read in forensic fiction (Most recently I have seen this in Silent Witness,The Fall and The Autopsy of Jane Doe to name a few). They seem slightly out of place among the nitty gritty – a slumbering, white rose among bloody thorns. Why is this the case? Is this to garner more sympathy from the viewer or reader for the fallen Jane Doe? Or simply a way of cushioning the blow of death for sensitive eyes? We seem to be in a horrified awe of the modern Anatomical Venus.
So, what exactly was the Anatomical Venus? For that answer we must look to the past and the rise of the study of anatomy in 18th century Italy. I first heard of these ‘Venuses’ when I read the book Past Mortems: Life and Death Behind Mortuary Doors by Carla Valentine. Valentine trained as an anatomical pathology technician and is now the curator of the St Bart’s Pathology Museum in London. She mentions these reclining, wax figures with faces of ‘post orgasmic bliss’. Despite their beautiful appearance these specimens were used for dissections by medical students of the time, with each figure full of removable wax organs. After seeing the images comprised in Joanna Ebenstein’s excellent book The Anatomical Venus, it is fair to comment that they are almost perverse in nature. With real flowing hair, adorned with jewelry (a pearl necklace in one case nonetheless) and real pubic hair, these wax women are very much like the reclining Venuses depicted in renaissance art (Titian’s Venus of Urbino particularly springs to mind). They are very far from the gory nature of dissection we associate with the public dissections of criminals and body snatchers of 19th century Edinburgh for example.
The Medici Venus
The Anatomical Venus by Joanna Ebenstein
The most prominent of these specimens is known as the Medici Venus. The first of her kind, she was created by master wax sculptor Clemente Susini in the workshop of La Specola in 1780’s Florence. Susini, along with his master Fontana, were commissioned to create hundreds of wax specimens. But the Medici Venus was the only one with such intense detail and that was fully dis-mountable. With the new Grand Duke of Tuscany, Leopold II, came reformation in all aspects of society, including matters relating to art, science and the divine. The Medici Venus embodied all three. The human body was marveled as one of God’s most incredible creations, something that ought to be celebrated without the unsightly appearance of blood, pus and other secretions from real life cadavers. Prior to her creation, smaller female anatomical figures had been created in wood and ivory with small fetuses inserted in some cases, but none displayed the hyper-realistic aesthetic of this reclining wax work. Perhaps the most ironic observation from her creation was the involvement of the Church. Wax has always had significance in the Catholic Church, seen with the rise in use of expensive beeswax candles in the 17th Century, divine wax imprinted amulets and the iconography of bees. Wax was considered malleable and fragile, like the human body Jesus Christ was crucified in, but not real enough to provoke the ‘sins of the flesh’. This paradoxical concept is even more bizarre when we see the perfect faces of ecstasy in early female saint sculptures. The medium of wax was almost an ‘acceptable buffer’ to view the female body. After all, how could lust be stimulated in such a divine specimen that shows gods perfect creation? And yet, as stated by Arnaud-Eloi Gautier d’Agoty in the 19th century, ‘For men to be instructed, they must be seduced by aesthetics. But how can anyone render the image of death agreeable?’ The answer was found in the ingenious, wax woman, who even had a tiny wax fetus inside her belly despite her apparently perfect, virginal body.
Having recently visited the Surgeons Museum in Edinburgh, I cannot help but wonder how one feels viewing these ‘dissected graces’ on display in Florence. Although the Surgeons Museum shows very real human tissues, including a child with resin pumped arteries and a varnished exterior, the specimens do not make for uncomfortable viewing. They are not propped on satin pillows and made to look perfect. Despite the dissectible Venuses being made of wax they seem harder to look at. They are fetishized in their display. Never once alive but ‘created’ as a sexualised symbol to appease a religious, yet scientific, society.
Pathological Bodies Project 